The constructivism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The constructivism - Essay Example The constructivist theory is student centered not teaching centered. The teacher allows the students to make use of their knowledge and helps them in construction of their knowledge. Unlike traditional theories of learning that define a teacher as an informer or deliverer of knowledge, in construction theory, teacher is only the guide. The students are not receivers of knowledge; they conceive their previously attained knowledge and employ it in constructing new knowledge. Teachers help the students in collaborative construction of knowledge by social negotiation and reflective practice. This means that the students learn in a collaborative environment in which, he is not alone to learn but he has many more learners with him, a whole class. This can be understood by the example given at the starting of the chapter in which, the students are involved in constructing an elaborate city bus. The students did not allow Tommy to enter the bus because of his adopted role as an animal. Later on, the teacher negotiates to the students about why should animals not allowed in bus and they reflect according to their own received experiences. The students learn by collaborative construction of knowledge and they are facilitated by the teacher in terms of their learning. The teacher negotiates about their conceptions and understanding and allows them to reflect on the situation. They practice what they see and by their teacher’s help, they are able to construct knowledge that was generalized previously.

Small business Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Small business - Assignment Example This report discusses Entrepreneurial mind sets are difficult to define, but they are within the realm of psychological dispositions which are entrenched in customs and worldviews. According to Dweck (2006), there is a distinction between a fixed mindset and a growth mindset, and personalities in the former believes that intelligence is inherent while the latter acknowledges that success and results depend on effort. In business, a growth mindset can bring more value than a fixated mindset, a mental tool that empowers one to initiate change. This is the entrepreneurial trait approach and according to this model, an entrepreneur is often defined within certain traits, often an interaction with the inner self manifest in the manner I which they control, plan, Set goals; take risk, decision making and independence. In literature, a focus on the difference between and an entrepreneur and one who lacks such skills have been brought to the fore. Brockhaus (1980) empirical study noted that an entrepreneur brings value addition to the business through risk taking propensity, a trait lacking in the majority of the population he studied. ChelL (2008) asserts that an entrepreneur is driven by the need for achievement, a locus of control, the social constructionism theory. With such a drive and push in the business environment, of priority to such a personality would to find innovative ways to bring change to the business. According to Storey (2011) optimism and chance theory best explains the mindset of an entrepreneur. According to the theory, entrepreneurs are not attracted to the conventional way of conducting normal business, rater they pounce on a chance to bring different perspectives to the normal ways of business. According to Mcgrath & Macmillan (2009)Â  an entrepreneurial mind set typically goes for the goals and stops functioning by the ground rules. The writers distinguishes a manager from an entrepreneur and notes that the former

Order in the World vs. Savagery Essay Example for Free

Order in the World vs. Savagery Essay Choose a theme and explain how that theme influences the system of rules and order the boys establish when they arrive on the island, and what happens when the rules disintegrate. Order in the World vs. Savagery Among Men In William Golding’s Lord of the Flies, the characters demonstrate what can happen when the fear of the unknown sets in. Giving up the familiarity of authoritative figures and domesticated surroundings can put some people, especially adolescents and children, into a state of shock. If this state of shock does not set in immediately, it is inevitable to set in with time. This novel, filled with allegorical references, is a prime example of how the cultures and values set up by people and evolving over time can be ruined by crisis, creating our main theme of Order in the World VS. Savagery Among Men. The novel starts out with our main characters, the school boys, who have been marooned on a completely deserted island. Being that these are mere children, it doesn’t take too long before everyone starts to realize that not only do they no longer have the structure of adult supervision, but they must also learn to fend for themselves. Conflicting human instincts begin to arise, and we all know that without structure in our world, instincts can be a terribly scary addition to this chaotic mix. It is quite interesting to see that even given their crisis of a situation, one of the boys still clings to his former civilized lifestyle. He still has the urge inside of him to work toward order and their pre-existing domesticated, cushy lives. Living in our sheltered world for such a very long period of time, in this case his whole life has created a barrier between him and reality. Given that he is just a boy, this is not unusual but rather expected of him. On the other hand, we have the majority of the boys, who have resorted to their primordial instincts. They start off with a sort of structure: the conch shell. This is their only form of order in their new life, a symbolic sign of civility which they have brought with them from their old lives. This was, at first, a sense of security. The conch was once used to summon everyone together as a group after their plane crash. However after Jack the leader was chosen to run the group, he became relentless, spouting demands left and right, expecting his group to agree at every whim or else. Ralph, one of the other main characters, opposed the barbaric ideas proposed by Jack, and created his own group. When Jack hears of this disruption to his overruling, he makes sure to convince everyone that they need to be on his team and that he can help them more than wimpy Ralph will be able to. When his teachings are unleashed, Roger rolls a giant boulder onto Piggy, which also crushes their conch shell. I believe that this is a symbol of the disintegration of all civility among the boys. As these rules continue to diminish, the representation of our theme becomes more and more clear. For example, Simon encounters the beast that frightens all of the boys to no end, only to find that the beast does not exist; it is imaginary. The beast, we find, is simply a symbol which lies inside of each and every person because it represents human primitive instincts. When Simon went to alert the rest of the group about the beast, the boys with their newfound savage ways of living attacked Simon immediately without any hesitation whatsoever. The boys tore his body limb from limb until there was no life left. This part of the novel is an extremely important part of the theme because the behavior of the boys is what brought this â€Å"beast† to life! In conclusion, as you are able to see, our theme of order and reason in the world versus savagery and impulse influences the system of rules (or lack thereof) throughout the entire novel. In the beginning, many clung tight to their lives of order, while the remainder of others decided right away that because there was no supervision, they needed to have a leader as soon as possible. Toward the end of our novel, as their rules began to dismantle and leadership turned to a god complex dictatorship, we are still able to see the influential theme in the story line as savagery among men takes over all order when the killing begins.

Crime and Society Essays criminal justice considerations

Crime and Society Essays criminal justice considerations INTRODUCTION the problems of society become most visible when change occurs, and recent decades have brought immense social and economic changes (Pampel, 2000: 52). This can be revealed most clearly in the sociological aspects of youth crime. However, it has also been claimed that social policy should evaluate how policies impact on peoples lives (Blakemore, 1998: 5). Durkheim noted that society works best when it exercises control over individuals (Pampel, 2000: 72). Acceptable behaviour is enforced through law and morality which is maintained through rules and principles: the cement of society (Devlin cited in Elliott and Quinn, 1998: 449). This cement illustrates legal moralism that has been identified as socially significant (Cotterrell, 1989, Page 1). Accordingly, an analysis of laws conceptual structures (Cotterrell, 1989, Page 3) could be ascertained and the importance of shared values emphasised, ultimately influencing individuals behaviour (Pampel, 2000, Page 57). This has been reflected in a decline of organic solidarity, differentiating societys collective conscience, and thereby creating an environment for an increase in crime. This philosophy of inter-related support has been recognised as structural functionalism which, taken to extremes, acknowledges that poverty and crime are normal and natural functions within any healthy society (Pampel, 2000, Page 75). The rule of law should represent the ideal of a universal goodness exhibiting no negative impact on any given society, and no negative characteristics that could apply to its nature according to Thompson (Thompson, 1975, Page 266). Unfortunately, it appears to be this concept that has swung too far in the favour of societys miscreants, to the detriment of their victims, the communities in which these offenders live, and the weaker members of society, prompting the current debate on victims rights and David Blunketts intentions to re-address the balance to deliver real justice to victim s and the wider community (Blunkett, 2002b). This essay evaluates the wider issues surrounding the criminal justice system, social policy and how feminism and the study of gender impacts on these sectors. Classicism and positivism are particularly relevant to any study of criminology and lead to an introduction of criminological theories which attempt to put feminism into the context of social policy within the criminal justice sector. Crimes amongst the youth might also be considered to be a reflection of the current social trends and this facet has briefly been evaluated in terms of social environment. The conclusion summarises many details introduced in this essay. 2. DISCUSSION 2.1 Definitions of crime The Royal Commission on Criminal Justice was set up to: examine the effectiveness of the criminal justice system in England and Wales in securing the conviction of those guilty of criminal offences and the acquittal of those who are innocent (Zander, in Martin, 1998). The Runciman Commission made 352 recommendations in 1993, from police investigations to disclosure of evidence (Field and Thomas, 1994 cited in James and Raine, 1998: 40). All aspects of the criminal justice system came under scrutiny, with 600 organisations contributing to its evidence (Martin, 1998: 115). During this period, the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, the Criminal Appeal Act 1995 and the Criminal Procedure and Investigation Act 1996 were all implemented, with varying interpretations and capricious emphases which altered according to Management changes. Pampel observes, however, that: the problems of society become most visible when change occurs, and recent decades have brought immense social and economic changes (Pampel, 2000: 52). Durkheim, meanwhile, noted that society works best when it exercises control over individuals (Pampel, 2000: 72) with Weber maintaining that: societies work more smoothly when the use of power has legitimacy in the eyes of both the rulers and the ruled (Pampel, 2000: 113). Deterrence, retribution, rehabilitation and incapacitation constitute the four major theories of punishment. Deterrence aims to reduce crime through threat of punishment, or through its example. The concept is that the experience of punishment would create an impact unpleasant enough to prevent any further offence. Penalties are established to prevent crime being contemplated, with the idea that the example of unpleasant consequences would make potential criminals reconsider any future offence. Retribution requires an offender to contribute community-based endeavours through proportionality related to the crimes committed. The concept involves cleaning the slate through enforced labour to account to society for any misdemeanour. With the intention of better justice through more consistent sentencing, the White Paper preceding the Criminal Justice Act 1991 suggested that convicted criminals get their just deserts (HMSO, 1990a). This concept does actually limit the States power through limiting exemplary sentences, achieving parity when two offenders receive similar punishments for similar crimes. The National Victim Support Programme was considered a way forward with respect to societys acceptance of restorative justice but both of the major political parties have pursued half formed and in many ways half hearted policies in relation to victims of crime. There is little indication of change in this area (Newburn and Crawford, 2002: 117). Conformity through inner positive motivation exemplifies the theory of rehabilitation, although it has been criticised for disparity in proportionality. The concept is not based on the degree of offence committed or focused on the criminals past, but on future rehabilitation to preclude re-offending through changes of circumstances. Conversely, incapacitation recognises that some offenders fail to respond to deterrence or rehabilitation and continue to commit crimes as and when an opportunity to do so presents itself. For criminals with this mindset the only option is protective sentencing to prevent further crimes being committed, thereby punishing the offender for crimes committed with a further implication of punishment for future crimes that could be envisaged if released. An equally important part of restorative justice must be in measures to prevent crimes being committed. Funding of 6 million has been invested in a Government programme to reduce crime. Some of these measures include restorative justice, enforcement of financial penalties, CCTV initiatives, treatment of offenders, youth inclusion initiatives, targeting policies and intervention work in schools To be effective in developing suitable policies the criminal justice system need to approach the problem from different angles simultaneously, and adopt a policy of co-operation and co-ordination across all involved parties. Since the inception of the Regional Crime Squads (South cited in Maquire, 1994, 423), co-operation has existed across autonomous police forces, and surveillance intelligence squads can acquire information which, along with co-operation from the other agencies which make up the criminal justice system, can be collated and used to prevent some of the worst excesses of violen ce and crime erupting. Novick argues that the basis of the State is a need for a single and efficient protective association in a territory (McCoubrey White, 307) with Jacques considering that economic efficiency needs to be assessed in respect of its impact on human feelings, on community and on social relationships and the quality of life in society (Jacques, 1976, 15). Adjudication provides a formal mechanism for resolving disputes, with rules of change available to deal with new problems requiring further elucidation and rules of recognition involving prerogative powers and the sovereignty of Parliament. These rules do not account for those natural rules which acknowledge those inherent fundamental human rights. According to Finnis (2002), each individual is aware that deviation from societys code of behaviour would result in sanctions being applied to avoid injustice. The ethos Finnis applies to his explanation of retribution is considered to rectify the distribution of advantages and disadvantages b y depriving the convicted criminal of his freedom of choice in proportion to his unlawful act. Regardless of theories, an escalating scale of crimes continue to be committed, with 5.2 million offences recorded in England and Wales during 2000 (Recorded Crime, HMSO Press Release, 19/01/01) which, when compared to 3.87 million in 1989 and 479,40,018 in 1950, has an effect on long term projections in the prison population to 2008 (British Crime Survey 2001 2002). Evidence of this was exhibited when the disturbances in Strangeways prison took place in 1990, prompting the Woolf Report (Custody, Care and Justice, HMSO, 1991). It was published as a White Paper in 1991 and highlighted the relationship between overcrowding in prisons and the maintenance of control, promoting ongoing discussions about the aims of imprisonment. Meanwhile, the crime response and solving rate has fallen from 45% to 29% despite the number of police officers having increased from 63,100 to 126,500 (British Crime Survey 2001 2002). Maguire suggests that: increasing numbers of police officers, an increase in telephones making reporting easier, increasing use of insurance, and reduced levels of public tolerance to violence have all contributed (Maguire, cited in Croall, 1997). Stern recognises the system often precludes dedicated people from a more effective route of exacting retribution (Stern, 1989: 247). The diversity of ideas and practices associated with the restorative justice movement exemplify the difficulties associated with the concept. Johnstone (2003) highlights the paradigm of justice associated with practical experimentation that underlies the values and ideas which involve a number of models of theoretical law covering criminal and civil law together with restorative justice. The relevance of this earlier part of the essay reflects the ethos of restorative justice: this is not a new concept, nor can it be viewed in isolation. 2.2 Classicism, Positivism and Realism The divergence of positivism from its precursor, classicism, was described by Austin as a rule laid down for the guidance of an intelligent being by an intelligent being having power over him. (Austin, 1995: 9). Parallels with this concept can be illustrated within the feminist model whereby women were classed as irrational beings and of secondary importance to men. It has been acknowledged that criminological theories have been developed by men for men and attempts to categorise women offenders in accordance with these precepts fails to be applicable (Gelsthorpe and Morris, 1990: xii-8). In other words, men have acquired a dominant position in society. Left realism reflects this dominance. The ethos of left realism illustrates that certain types of behaviour that is more prevalent amongst the less powerful would be classed as criminal. Criminal laws were then introduced to reflect this concept. Rather than the criminal being regarded as an acquiescent offender, left realism would ha ve them portrayed as a victim of society. Furthermore, it is from the concept of left realism that the notion of a number of actors, involving the offender, the police, the victim and the criminal justice system has developed. Left realism distinguishes between a macro level of crime theory and a micro level, the former involving the sociological aspects and the latter a more micro level involving an individual and personal viewpoint of crime (Lilly, Cullen Ball, 1995) and takes into account the role of the victims of crime. Constraints on space preclude a detailed discussion on left and right realism, but an overview identifies four important factors which are regarded as being inter-related and which contribute to a holistic image of crime on both a micro level and a more integrated macro level (Young, 2002). The various theories, such as Labelling Theory, represent right realism and tend to focus on the offender and the reasons why they acted in the way they did. The emphasis on feminism within the field of criminology evolved through the ethos of left realism, where male dominance was recognised for its fundamental contributions to traditional criminological theories. A universal assumption relates to womens particular role within society and, accordingly, studies of women offenders are considered particularly relevant to the sociological facets such as morality and economic situations (Smart, 1976). It has been recorded that 84% of known offenders in 1984 were men, from which Heidensohn notes: Women commit a small share of all crimestheir crimes are fewer, less serious, more rarely professional, and less likely to be repeated (Heidensohn, 2002, 491). Furthermore, according to Barclay (1995, page 20), just 8% of women were convicted of an indictable offence from a population born in 1953 (cited in Heidensohn, 2002, 494). It must be noted that, whilst violence is most often perpetrated by men, 1 in 5 occurrences of violence against women were committed by other women (Coleman and Moynihan, 1996, page 97). According to Gelsthorpes model, however, any studies focusing on womens criminality often tend to focus on their gender rather than the crime itself (1986: 138 149), resulting in sweeping generalisations being made and an assumption that women are mad not bad (Lloyd, 1995: xvii cited in KeltaWeb, 2005). Taken further, it has been suggested that laws are constructed and enforced by men to the disadvantage of women (Burke, R, 2001). Criminology from the feminist perspective is exemplified through either liberal, radical, Marxist or socialist models, the latter also incorporating post-modernism and eco-feminism. The significance of the feminist stance within the criminal justice system relates partly to societys perception of their biological function and lack of rationality, in accordance with Lombrosos theories of atavism. This positive philosophy is a disparate variation from classicism, and was introduced into criminological theory by Lombroso, Ferri and Garofolo (Williams and McShane, 1991: 35) although it was noted that They failed to find the numbers of born female criminals marked by physical, atavistic traits which they anticipated (Heidensohn, 2002, page 492). Heidensohn notes, however, that the evidence of Lombroso and Ferreros work has survived whereas their equivalent rese arch relating to men did not (Heidensohn, 2002, page 493), although other research revealed the importance of sociological and environmental factors (Heidensohn, 2002, page 493). The distinct theories of classicism and positivism have been recognised in criminological studies as the two major hypotheses in the science of penology, conceding criminal anthropology as inherent in identifying criminals through their genetic structure, likening it to atavism (Lombroso, 1876). All people are considered equal according to classicist precepts and governments are created by those individuals to protect the peoples rights through the recognition of a social contract (McCoubrey and White, 1999: 60 84). Classicists aspire towards civil rights, realised through the law as a system of due process. It is this emphasis on the social contract that compounds the deviance as a moral offence against society. Punishment is proportional to the seriousness of the offence and can only be justified to preserve the social contract and deter others (Williams, 1997: 8). The constrained concept of Classicism identifies as autonomous a person who is the result of their environment. Positivism, however, has been documented as either internal, [assuming an atavistic involvement of the psychological or biological aspect], or a sociological aspect of positivism which is outside an individuals control (Burke, 2001: 272) and assumes a dependency in individuals. Positivists approach deviance from a scientific perspective which enables deviance to be rectified through a combination of power and knowledge. The correlation between positivism and criminological theory identified criminals through an inherent genetic structure, perceived as atavistic features edifying villainous characteristics which could be identified through isolationist principles and surveillance experiments and through case studies (Lombroso, [1876] in Williams and McShane, 1991: 35). These sociological studies exhibited a reciprocity which was attributed to a specific social order, deviation from which society recognised as a criminal act. Positivist theory attributed this deviation to an abnormality that could be treated, with the hypothesis suggesting that criminals could be reformed. As the final result was intended to protect society from harm, punishment was sanctioned to provide treatment, not to punish, with cognitive treatments involving group therapy sessions and the use of drug therapies to achieve these objectives. Conversely, Bentham and Beccaria propounded the classical theory of fundamental rights associated with natural law. Their utilitarian principles of autonomy, liberty and rationality acknowledged deviance as a rational act against the rules of society and from which these miscreants needed to be dissuaded through the application of punishments (Burke, 2001: 270). 2.3 Criminological Theories Hobbes observation of human actions being ultimately self-serving, including the concept of morality, related cognisance to a state of nature which guarantees the survival of the fittest. Classicists such as Hobbes, Bentham and Beccaria considered that deviance is an inherent characteristic in the psyche of all individuals (Gottfredson and Hirshi, 1990), displayed as an expression of human rationality towards the presence of bad laws (Beccaria, 1963). Beccaria suggested that punishments should be consistent and logical and bound within the legal system. From the basis on non-conformity to societys rules, deviance has been regarded as a miscreants response to temptation and the exercise of their power over others. Use of a structural method elucidates relationships between a hierarchy of individuals and groups which have been considered to be inherent within the structural approach to criminology and, equally important, societys reactions to criminal behaviour. Crime tends to exhibit specific reactions against deviance, evidence of which can be seen with the Labelling Theory (Lemert, 1967) which focuses attention on the hierarchical role of crimes in society. Control theory, meanwhile, unearths links between individuals and institutions, for example family background and upbringing and corresponding behavioural actions and reactions. Hagan relates this philosophy to what he terms the structural study of crime (Hagan, 1988: 3) and the Power-Control Theory which plays a significant role in explaining the social distribution of delinquent behaviour through the social reproduction of gender relations (Hagan, 1988: 1 287) and affects the social distribution of delinquency. Moreover, one important aspect of this theory is the ethics associated with crime and delinquency, for example, the effects of gender on criminality. Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), meanwhile, suggest that classicism is revealed through the control theories which exhibit consequences painful to the individual. (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990) Positivism in relation to criminology depended on the scale of rationality between free will and determinism according to precepts of Cesare Lombroso whose explanations of criminal behaviour resulted in the criminal born man or woman who exhibited physical attributes leading to their recognition as criminals, a situation not supported by Durkheim. Too many variables made Lombrosos theory precarious but his typologies were correlated between certain offenders committing certain kinds of crime (Gottfreddson and Hirschi 1990). A number of other theories exist to explain a psychological or sociological basis to the science of criminology. Bandura and Eysenk studied observational learning, conditioning and personality traits, whilst the Strain Theory and the Anomie Theory of Merton blame environmental pressures on deviance, with the Subculture Theory attributing lack of attainment to societys expectations to be at the heart of offending. 2.4 Sociological Aspects of Youth Crime Whilst all people might be considered equal according to classicist precepts, with governments created by those individuals to protect the peoples rights through the recognition of a social contract (McCoubrey and White, 1999, Page 60 84), David Blunkett singles out a specific sector of society by suggesting that: nearly three quarters of street crime offenders are under 17 and a hard core five per cent of juveniles are responsible for 60 per cent of offences for their age group (Blunkett, 2002c). Clearly, despite the introduction of innumerable projects designed to re-integrate offenders back into their communities, the growth in lawless behaviour has not diminished. Many measures to restrain unacceptable behaviour are now available, amongst which are Youth Offending Teams, Final Warning Schemes, Detention and Training Orders, Acceptable Behaviour Programmes, Parenting Orders, Reparation Orders and Anti-Social Behaviour Orders (Blunkett, 2002c) although, retrospectively, little appears to have improved. In December 2003 Lord Falconer of Thoroton emphasised that this: crime and anti-social behaviour corrupts communities, eating away at the fabric of the way we all want to live our lives (Lord Falconer, 2003). An increasing lack of morality appears to be more prevalent within modern society, with Chief Superintendent of Greater Manchester Police describing these amoral youths as feral (The Times, 2005). Despite all the legislation at the disposal of the criminal justice system, however, the yob culture appears to be endemic, with the vulnerable in society more at risk of becoming victims than ever before. The media report lurid headlines on a daily basis: Beaten to death on his doorstep (Daily Mail, 2005); Beaten up on Video Phone (Daily Mail, 2005); Hoody ban eases shoppers fear (Daily Mail, 2005, page 8). The edition on May 19th 2005 reported how thugs attack a funeral car by launching an 8 foot length of wood through the windscreen of the car travelling immediately behind the hearse. It has been reported that some forces are not making good use of legislation and tackling the imitation firearm problem (Deputy Chief Constable, Daily Mail, 2005, Page 8) when children, some as young as 13, routinely carry replica BB guns, which can cause serious injury to targets up to 30 yards away, around the streets. CONCLUSION In 2002 the Home Secretary intended: to deliver real justice to victims and the wider community and strike a fair balance between the rights of victims and the accused (Blunkett, 2002a). The Legal Action Group suggest that victims and defendants rights are mutually incompatible (Cape, 2004, page 1) and suggest that victims rights are not being catered for; their rights are neither acknowledged nor respected. However, they also ascertain that, in making it easier to convict defendants is not in the best interests of the victims. The fragility between rights to security and freedom and the obligation to protect communities, reflects a natural result of shared morality without which rules would lack meaning (Pampel, 2000, Page 67). This factor was clearly recognised by David Blunkett who acknowledged the public felt that the system had swung too far in favour of the accused (Blunkett, 2002a). This intensely deep-rooted problem of lawlessness within communities cannot be solved by the police alone. Henham observes that this can only be achieved through: disregard of formal legal controls which prove an obstacle to the production of a high conviction rate although he acknowledges that due process maintains an adherence to courtroom procedure and protection of the individual (Henham, 1998, Page 592). Many organisations have highlighted the growth in recorded crime despite measures in place to punish the offender. Punishment falls into various areas from incapacitation to retribution, deterrence to rehabilitation. A large number of theories abound, all attempting to explain the reasons behind criminal actions. These theories investigate the backgrounds of criminals, their psychological and physical attributes and their positions in society together with their abilities to cope with expectations placed on them by society. As yet there has been no definitive answer and, due to so many variables, there possibly never will be. Controversially, Durkheim believed that a certain amount of crime failed to harm society and was normal and valuable in a healthy society (Cotterell, 1992: 159), with the ideas of right and wrong being reaffirmed through the existence of crime and punishment (Pampel, 2000: 59). This reflects a natural result of shared morality without which rules would lack meaning (Pampel, 2000: 67), promoting the concept of the durability of social life inevitably assuming a definite form. Individual and collective morality would assume that offenders should be punished to maintain the stability of the community and maintain their safety. Our collective conscience ensures that the majority accept the rule of law and accept that deviance needs to be punished. Psychologically, restorative justice is assumed to invoke aesthetic sentiment of forgiveness for miscreants and release for victims. What it fails to do is provide society with assurances that their safety and integrity will be maintained in an atmosphere where the offenders rights appear to be upheld in variance with those of the victim, or the fundamental rights the victim is entitled to expect. A personal view could be recorded which considers that restorative justice exhibits illusionary tendencies to pacify the reformers at the expense of societys status quo. Clearly, not a supporter of restorative justice this writer intuitively distorts the semantics and cognitively refers to this concept as retributive justice: more aptly named, and far more appropriate for the majority of offenders who, regardless of intervention programmes to rehabilitate them will continue to offend despite societys best efforts. BIBLIOGRAPHY Austin, 1995, cited in Martin, J (1999): The English Legal System: Oxford, UK, Hodder Stoughton, p.115 Beccaria, Cesare. (1963) [1764]: On Crimes and Punishments. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. Blakemore, Ken (1998): Social Policy: an Introduction: Buckingham, UK: Open University Press Blunkett, David (2002a): Balance of rights essential to effective justice. June, 19 Speaking at the Metropolitan Police Modernising Criminal Justice Conference http://www.cjsonline.org.uk/news/2002/june/balance_of_rights.html Blunkett, David (2002b): Justice for All Radical reform of the Criminal Justice System unveiled. July 17Criminal justice reforms unveiled. Announcement from Home Secretary to the Police Superintendents Association of England and Wales http://www.policesupers.com/police-supers-news.asp?news_id=139 Blunkett, David, (2002c)introducing the publication of the new White Paper, Justice for all, 2002, November 14: speaking at 3.30pm at the Youth Justice Board Annual. Cape, Ed (2004): Reconcilable Rights: analysing the tension between victims and defendants. Legal Action Group, 2004. http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:FHPdMNH7Xw0J:www.rethinking.org.uk/informed/lagbriefing.pdf+current+debate+regarding+victims%27+rightshl=en Burke, Roger Hopkins (2001): An Introduction to Criminological Theory. Cullompton: Willan publishing Cape, Ed (2004): Reconcilable Rights: analysing the tension between victims and defendants, Legal Action Group, 2004. In Victims and defendants rights: can they be reconciled?. Rethinking Crime Punishment, 2005, April, http://www.rethinking.org.uk/informed/lagbriefing.pdf Coleman, Clive and Moynihan, Jenny (1996): Understanding Crime Data: haunted by the dark figure. Buckingham, Philadelphia, USA: Oxford University Press Cotterrell, Roger (1989): The Politics of Jurisprudence: a Critical Introduction to Legal Philosophy: London, UK: Butterworths Cotterrell, Roger (1992): The Sociology of Law: London, UK: Butterworth Daily Mail Newspaper, 2005, May 20: Green, Deputy Chief Constable, Greater Manchester, Page 8 Daily Mail Newspaper, 2005, May 19: Thugs attack a funeral car Daily Mail Newspaper, 2005, May 20: Hoody ban eases shoppers fear, Page 8 Daily Mail Newspaper, 2005, May 21: Beaten to death on his doorstep, Front Page Daily Mail Newspaper, 2005, May 20: Beaten up on Video Phone, Front Page Devlin cited in Elliott, C Quinn, F (1998): English Legal System (2nd edition): Essex, UK, Addison Wesley Longman Ltd Field Thomas (1994) cited in James, A Raine, J (1998): The New Politics of Criminal Justice: London, UK, Longman Finnis, John (2002): Natural Law: the Classical Tradition. In Coleman, Jules L and Shapiro, Scott (eds): The Oxford Handbook of Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pages 1-60 Gelsthorpe and Morris, 1990: xii-8 cited in KeltaWeb (2005): A Feminist Perspective on Women and Crime. Available from: www.keltawebconcepts.com.au/efemcrim1.htm. [Accessed 09/08/05] Gelsthorpe, L (1986): Towards a sceptical look at sexism. International Journal of the Sociology of Law 14: 125-53 Gottfredson, Michael R and Hirschi, T (1990): A General Theory of Crime. Stanford: Stanford University Press Hagan, John (1988): Feminist Scholarship, Relational and Instrumental Control, and a Power-Control Theory of Gender and Delinquency. In British Journal of Sociology 39 (3):301-336. Heidensohn, Frances (2002): Gender and Crime. cited in The Oxford Handbook of Criminology. Maquire, Mike; Morgan, Rod; and Reiner, Robert. Oxford: Oxford University Press Henham, Ralph (1998): Human Rights, due process and sentencing. In British Journal of Criminology, Issue 38, Page 592 Home Office (2002): Prevalence of Drug Use. Key Findings from the 2001 2002 British Crime Survey. London: HMSO. Available from: http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/r182.pdf [Accessed 10/08/05] HMSO, (1990a): Crime, Justice and Protecting the Public. Cm 965. London: HMSO. http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:n-zy-8yFCIEJ:webjcli.ncl.ac.uk/1996/issue3/rtf/henham3.rtf+HMSO%2BCrime,+Justice+and+Protecting+the+Publichl=en Jacques, E (1976): A General Theory of Bureaucracy: London, UK, Heinnemann Johnstone, Gerry (2003): A Restorative Justice Reader: Texts, Sources and Context. Devon: Willan Publishing Lemert, E M (1967): Primary and secondary deviance. In S H Traub C B Little (Eds.), Theories of Devianc

the life of Dorothy Day :: essays research papers

Dorothy was born in Brooklyn, New York on November 8 1897. In 1906 her family survived the San Francisco earthquake and her and her family took a drastic change in lifestyle conditions after Day’s father became unemployed and they were forced to move into a small flat in Chicago’s South Side. After seeing the shame her father felt with unemployment sparked her vocation to help the poor. Originally Day, in high school rejected organized religion because she claimed she never saw these â€Å"Religious people† helping the poor. Her religious development was a slow process but eventually she became a very devoted catholic. She Saw the Catholic Church as â€Å"the church of immigrants, the church of the poor† This calling and strong beliefs in the teaching of God encouraged Day to help those who were poor and unemployed. With this in mind and her experience, strong faith and family past Dorothy started a paper known as The Catholic Worker. She sold the paper for a penny a copy â€Å"So cheap anyone could afford it† she explained. And on May 1st the first copies were issued at Union Square and by December 100 000 copies were being printed each month. The paper’s purpose was to publicise catholic social teaching and promote steps to bring about the peaceful transformation of society. By the winter the paper had received so much success homeless people began to knock on her door. Eventually an apartment was rented with space for 10 women and soon after a place for poor men. Next came a house in Greenwich Village. Then in1936 this community moved to two buildings in China town. The charity became a national movement. There were 33 Catholic worker houses spread across the country because of the depression there were many people in need of these places. Day took these people in â€Å"As members of her family†. As a strong catholic she went to daily mass and weekly confession and regularly went on religious retreats and read the bible. Today the organisation is still running with 185 catholic worker communities which are committed to non-violence, voluntary poverty, p rayer and hospitality for the homeless, exiled, hungry and forsaken. They protest injustice, war, racism and all violence. Through Day’s protests, achievements, actions, words and writings of 8 books, 350 plus articles for journals and magazines and also over 1 000 articles for the Catholic Worker newspaper she proved to be an excellent role model for many people.

Essay --

â€Å"Ilmu pengetahuan tanpa nilai-nilai yang mulia belum tentu dapat melahirkan masyarakat yang baik dan berjaya. Nilai-nilai yang mulia tanpa ilmu pengetahuan juga tidak akan melahirkan masyarakat yang berjaya†. Begitulah ungkapan kata-kata bestari oleh mantan Perdana Menteri kita, Tun Dr. Mahathir bin Mohamad, Bapa Pemodenan Negara yang merupakan salah satu daripada pencetus kegemilangan dunia pendidikan negara. Selamat pagi dan Salam 1 Malaysia saya ucapkan kepada: Pengerusi Majlis, Yang Amat Berhormat Datuk Johan Ashaari bin Murti, Menteri Pendidikan merangkap Timbalan Perdana Menteri. Yang Berhormat Datuk Romario Ansam anak Rungah, Timbalan Menteri Pendidikan. Yang Amat Berhormat Pehin Sri Maher Zain, Ketua Menteri. Yang Berhormat Freddy Jabu anak Jugah, Timbalan Ketua Menteri. Yang Berhormat Datuk Halimah, Menteri Tugas-tugas Khas Dalam Negeri berkaitan Pendidikan. Yang Berhormat Datuk-datuk dan Datin-datin. Yang Berbahagia Datuk Ariffin Faiq, Ketua Pengarah Pendidikan. Yang Berbahagia Datuk Sabri bin Rahmat, Rektor IPGM. Yang Dihormati Encik Hafiz Azman, Pengarah Pendidikan Negeri. Yang Berusaha Puan Saftuyah binti Safri, Pengarah Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Pengarah-pengarah IPGK dan Wakil-wakil Pengarah IPGK. Yang Berusaha Encik Amir bin Jamal, Timbalan Pengarah Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Ketua-ketua Jabatan Persekutuan dan Negeri. Ketua-ketua Jabatan dan Ketua-ketua Unit Institut Pendidikan Guru Tunku Abdul Rahman. Pensyarah-pensyarah Kanan. Para Pensyarah. Staf-staf Sokongan. Para Graduan. Para Ibu Bapa. Tuan-tuan dan Puan-puan dekat di hati. Tegak rumah kerana tiangnya, tegak bumi kerana paksinya, tegaknya saya di sini adalah untuk menyampaikan sebuah pidato yang bertajuk â€Å"Kecemerlan... ...unyai muhasabah diri, mereka mampu mencipta nama dan berjaya di peringkat global. Tuan-tuan dan puan-puan yang dihormati sekalian, Sedarkah anda bahawa percubaan dan uji kaji ribuan kali telah dilakukan oleh Thomas Adison untuk mencipta lampu yang dapat kita nikmati faedahnya sehingga ke hari ini? Tahukah anda bahawa Colonel Sandera telah bersusah payah siang dan malam untuk mencipta resepi rahsia KFC nya sehingga semua kita yang pada hari ini menjamahnya sehingga menjilat jari? Sikap sebeginilah yang wajar diambilkan sebagai contoh dan panduan sekiranya kita ingin betul-betul cemerlang dalam akademik bahkan kehidupan kita seharian. Antara rahsia kejayaan orang-orang yang hebat ini ialah kepatuhan kepada disiplin. Lihatlah wahai dunia bahawa orang-orang yang berdisiplin ini yang akan menggoncang dunia! Bak kata pepatah, â€Å"siapa yang menuai, dia akan dapat hasilnya†.

Jesus and Cicero Essay

Sinning is one thing people feel that when people do die, they should automatically go to the underworld, or hell, due to their sinful actions. In the Aeneid, book number six, Virgil describes a place where these people go when they perish on earth. When these people get to the underworld, they are judged by their actions and punished depending on the severity of it. Virgil gives us the idea that there is indeed an afterlife, just like Jesus did. But when it came to sinners, Jesus forgave people who have sinned because he wants people to learn the idea of forgiving. Also he wants people to know that nobody is perfect, and that in order for God to forgive one’s sins, he or she must forgive others. When it comes to the idea of sin both Virgil and Jesus agree that there is an afterlife; but Virgil and Jesus’ idea of sin differ when it comes to punishments and judging people as human beings. Virgil shows his readers that the underworld is a place of punishment and cruelty. When sinners die, they are sent to the underworld to admit their wrongdoings and face the consequences for their actions. In the underworld there is a man named Rhadamanthus who listens to the sinners and sentences them to different penalties based on what they did. Once Rhadmanthus listens to the sinner’s story, he sentences them to different sections of the underworld. The underworld contains different sections that are based on levels of severity. The greater the sin someone commits, the greater the punishment that that person will receive. For example, in the sixth book of the Aeneid, Virgil says that, â€Å"Here come those who as long as life remained held brothers hateful, beat their parents, cheated poor men dependent on them; also those who hugged their new found riches to themselves and put nothing aside for relatives- A great crowd, this-then men killed for adultery, men who took arms in war against their right, not scrupling to betray their lords† (181:813-82 0). In this quote, Virgil gives examples of people’s sins that have gone to the Underworld for it. In the Aeneid, Virgil gives readers the idea that people who sin will be punished and sent to the underworld no matter what sin they commit. He also shows that there is an afterlife, but he does not discuss the idea of heaven and that all souls will travel to the underworld to face the consequences. Like Virgil, Jesus does believe in the afterlife, but he discusses the idea of both heaven and hell. He believes that once people die, their souls are lifted out of the human body and are either brought to heaven or hell. Jesus taught that people will be placed into heaven or hell based on their virtue and following the teachings of God. Jesus also bases it on people who either open or close up their heart for others. An example of the reflection of the heart and self comes from the Gospel of Luke. In the gospel it says that there was a rich man who had a poor man, named Lazarus, living o utside his gate. The poor man would beg to eat the food that would fall off the rich man’s table and he needed assistance. Once both men died, the poor man was lifted by angels to Abraham’s bosom, while the rich man was buried in Hades being tormented. When the rich man called to Abraham for help he said, â€Å"Son remember that you in your lifetime received your good things, and Lazarus in like manner evil things; but now he is comforted here, and you are in anguish† (Luke 16:25-26). He is saying that people who are poor are in need of assistance, but there were people who were wealthier that didn’t open up their hearts for others. So, those people of wealth would suffer in the afterlife unlike those were poor. Those who were poor would live a more comfortable way in the afterlife. Even though Virgil and Jesus believed in the afterlife, they differed when it came to the true idea of sinners. Virgil felt that all people would go to the underworld and be judged by Rhadamanthus to see their fate in the afterlife. He never discussed the idea of heaven, and he would make up certain punishments for different people. Unlike Virgil, Jesus looked at sinners in a different way. Instead of punishing and treating sinners differently, Jesus would forgive those who have sinned. An example of Jesus forgiving a sinner is in the Gospel of John. It talks about people gathering around the temple with a woman who committed adultery. The scribes and Pharisees brought the woman to Jesus to test and see what he would do to her. The reason the people wanted to test Jesus because in the Law of Moses, it states that the person who commits adultery shall be stoned. The remarkable part of the story is when Jesus says, â€Å"Let him who is without sin among you be the first to throw a stone at her† (John8:7). As he said this, everyone backed away one by one and Jesus was left alone with the adulterer. Once he was with her by himself he said, â€Å"Woman, where are they? Has no one condemned you?† She said,† No one Lord† And Jesus said, â€Å"Neither do I condemn you; go, and do not sin again† (John8:10-11). Jesus is saying that people cannot judge or punish a sinner if people themselves have sinned before in the past. Also, Jesus teaches that sins will be forgiven by the Lord as long as people learn from their mistakes and faults. When comparing Virgil and Jesus, they both have somewhat, similar thoughts of having an afterlife, but they differ greatly with people’s consequences. Virgil believes in certain sentences and reprimands. Jesus believes in the idea of mercy with sinners as long as they learn their lesson for the future. They both understand that sinning is a bad thing, but how one deals with sin is the true test. The real question is,† If someone commits sin against you, what will you do in reaction to it?†